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The System of vowels of the English language

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Предмет Английский язык

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Ознакомительный фрагмент работы:

Course work
by topic: «The System of vowels of the English language»
The author of the work:
2021
Content
Introduction
Part 1. Classification of English vowel sounds.
Part 2. Articulatory and phonological views on the classification of English vowels
Part 3. The main problems in the pronunciation of vowels in English
Conclusion
List of literature
Introduction
Phonetics is a science that studies the sound side of human speech. This science is one of the most basic in the section of linguistics. The word «phonetics» comes from the Greek phonetikos «sound, voice» (phone sound). Phonetics has its own specific feature, which is that it is the only science in linguistics that studies units of language where nature is inherently material. The air vibrations that are formed in the speaker are the main material carriers of the sounding speech. The listener can receive information and understand the speaker's speech with the help of auditory perception. The sound of speech is considered the most minimal, and at the same time, they are non-separable units in the speech flow, which are easily perceived by a person by ear. These sounds are real, because they can be heard from the mouth of the person himself at a certain moment of speech and at a certain time. Each speaker has his own specific features in pronunciation, by which he can be easily recognized among other people. We can also evaluate the same speech sounds belonging to a specific sound type. The sound type that the speaker pronounces is called the sound of the language. The sound type combines similar sounds in speech is considered an abstract unit.
The need to study the classification of English vowels is that thanks to it we can pronounce all English vowels close to the sound of native speakers. Classifications give an idea of how to pronounce certain sounds correctly and then combine the sounds into a single, correct, beautiful and, most importantly, understandable speech. It is worth noting that both British scientists and Soviet scientists were engaged in the compilation of various classifications. Among British linguists, it is worth highlighting such personalities as: Peter Ladefoged, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, and among Soviet linguists, Lev Shcherba stands out especially.
This course work is devoted to the study of vowels of the English language and the principles of their division into groups.
The object of research in this paper is the English language.
The subject of the study is the classification of vowels in the English language.
The purpose of the work is to study and identify more significant and necessary rules in phonetics for the correct pronunciation of vowels in the English language.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks were put forward:
To consider the classification of English vowel sounds;
Study the main problems;
To analyze articulatory and phonological views on the classification of vowels of the English language.
Part 1. Classification of English vowel sounds.
Vowels are sounds of a pure musical tone, when they are pronounced, the vocal cords are tense and vibrate, the exhaled air freely exits through the oral cavity, without encountering any obstacles in its path, the passage for air is wide, muscle tension is distributed throughout the speech apparatus.
The letters that denote vowel sounds in English are: a, e, I, o, u, y. We should not forget that a sound is what we hear, and a letter is a sign that represents a certain sound. To write down how a particular word or letter is read, there is a phonetic transcription. This is a system of signs, each of which expresses one sound.
In all languages speech sounds are traditionally divided into two main types – vowels and consonants. From the articulatory point of view vowels are speech sounds based on voice which is modified in the supralaringeal cavities. There is no obstruction in their articulation. Consonants are speech sounds in the articulation of which there is an obstruction, the removal of which causes noise, plosion or friction. The articulatory boundary between vowels and consonants is not well- marked. There exist speech sounds that occupy an intermediate position between vowels and consonants. These are sonorants [m,n,ŋ,l,w,r,]. The wide passage for the stream of air in the articulation of sonorants means that the oral and nasal cavities are active. In the English consonant system there are 24 consonants. The quality of the consonants depends on several aspects:
the work of the vocal cords;
what cavity is used as a resonator;
the force of the articulation and some other factors.
There are four principles of consonant classification: the type of obstruction and the manner of production of noise. We distinguish 2 classes of consonants:
a) occlusive, in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed [t, b,g];
b) constrictive, in the production of which an incomplete obstruction is formed.[s,z,Ʒ]
Each of the two classes is subdivided into noise consonants and sonorants. Noise consonants are divided into plosives (or stops) and affricates and constrictive sounds. Sonorants are divided into occlusive and constrictive sounds. Constrictive sonorants may be medial [n] and lateral [l].
Another principle is the place of articulation. Consonants are classed into labial, lingual or glottal. The first class is subdivided into a) bilabial [p]; b) labio- dental [v]; the second class is subdivided into: a) fore lingual or apical, articulated with the tip of the tongue [l, t, n, d], b) mediolingual [j], c)back lingual [k, g,], d) pharingal [h].
The next principle is the presence or absence of voice which depends on the work of the vocal cords. All voiced consonants are weak (lenis) and all voiceless consonants are strong (fortis).
The next principle is the position of the soft palate. According to this, English consonants can be oral and nasal.(m,n,n).
In the English vowel system there are 12 vowel monophthongs and 8 or 9 diphthongs. The quality of a vowel depends, first of all, on its stability, on the tongue position, lip position, character of the vowel end, length, tenseness. According to this principle English vowels are subdivided into monophthongs, diphthongs, diphthongoids.[ i: ], [ u: ]. According to the position of the tongue vowels are classed from vertical and horizontal planes. From the horizontal plane vowels are divided into :
front;
front-retracted ;
central ;
back ;
back-advanced.
From the vertical plane English vowels are divided into: 1. close; 2. mid; 3. open. Each class has wide and narrow variations. According to the lip rounding vowels have 3 positions: spread, neutral, rounded. According to the length English vowels are traditionally divided into short and long vowels, it is a historical phenomenon. Besides, there exists the positional length of vowels, depending on the position of a vowel in a word. The next point is checkness. All English short vowels are checked when stressed. The degree of checkness depends on the following consonant. All long vowels are free. From the point of view of tenseness all historically long vowels are tense, while short vowels are lax.
The sounds of English speech can be classified according to the following characteristics (see the table).
Basic principles of classification of English vowels:
- stability of pronunciation;
- the location of the main mass of the tongue in the oral cavity (its anterior, central or posterior part);
- lifting the main body of the tongue (high, medium or low position);
- tension of the speech apparatus (the degree of muscular tension of the tongue);
- longitude.
According to the first principle, English vowels are divided into monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.
Monophthongs and diphthongs were already mentioned in the previous chapter, so we will consider diphthongs in more detail. Diphthongoids are an intermediate between monophthongs and diphthongs.
They, as well as diphthongs, are characterized by sliding articulation, but the degree of sliding in them is much weaker. There is no radical change in the quality of the vowel sound in them, so diphthongoids are traditionally attributed to the group of monophthongs.
Of the 12 monophthongs of the English language, 2 of them: [i:] and [u:] are diphthongs. vowel sounds, when articulating which there is a minimal movement of the speech organs from one sound to another, since the components of the diphthongoid are very similar in nature and method of articulation. Diphthongoids occupy an intermediate position between monophthongs and diphthongs.
Next, consider the front vowels. If the main mass of the tongue is pushed forward to the front teeth (the front part of the tongue touches the lower teeth) and its middle part is curved upwards, then the vowels formed in this position of the tongue are front (monophthongs [i:], [e], [æ] and the first elements of the diphthongs [ea], [ei]).
Back vowels: monophthongs [u:], [o:], [o] and the first element of the diphthong [oi] are formed when the tongue is in such a position that its main body of the tongue is pulled back, and the back part is bent up.
Posterior vowels: when articulating the monophthongs [u], [a:] and the first element [i:], the bulk of the language is slightly advanced compared to the position in the back of the oral cavity.
Central vowels: central / mixed vowels ([e:], [a], [a] and the first element of the diphthong [ai]) are pronounced in a position where the bulk of the tongue is in the center of the oral cavity.
At the same time, both the middle and back parts are evenly raised.
The high vowels [i:], [i], [u], [u:] and the first elements of the diphthongs [ia], [ia] are pronounced in such a position of the tongue when its main mass rises high in the oral cavity.
The middle vowels: [e], [e:], [a], [o:] and the first elements of the diphthongs [ei], [ai], [ea] are pronounced when the main mass of the tongue is located in the middle of the oral cavity, and the middle and back parts of the tongue are evenly raised.
Low vowels: [a], [æ], [a:], [o] and the first elements of the diphthongs [oi], [ai], [au] are pronounced if the bulk of the language is located low in the oral cavity.
Tense vowels: Monophthongs can be pronounced with some muscle tension, as in the sounds [a:], [o:], or without voltage, as in [i], [a]. The vowels [i:], [u:], [o:], [a:], [e:] are characterized as tense, the rest - as unstressed.
Diphthongs are considered semi-stressed, since by the end of their articulation, the tension usually subsides. Diphthongoids are characterized by a certain increase in tension towards the end of the vowel utterance, since the sliding section of the diphthongoid is not at the end of the vowel sound, as in diphthongs, but at the beginning.
Talking about vowels requires first to specify their articulatory and acoustic characteristics. As was mentioned earlier, vowels unlike consonants are produced with no obstruction to the stream of air, so on the perception level their integral characteristic is naturally tone, not noise.
It would be interesting to know that a minimum vowel system of a language is likely to take the form of
The most important characteristic of the quality of these vowels is that they are acoustically stable. They are known to be entirely different from one another both articulatorily and acoustically. Consequently they may well be said to form boundaries of "phonetic field of vowels" in a modern man's life. Thus they display the highest degree of unlikeness and so maximum of abilities of people as regards to vowels. We could add that the commonest vowel system adds two other vowels to this minimum triangle to give a five vowels system of the type:
In the matter of the English language it would be fair to mention that due to various reasons it has developed a vocalic system of a much larger number of phonemes.
The quality of a vowel is known to be determined by the size, volume, and shape of the mouth resonator, which are modified by the movement of active speech organs, that is the tongue and the lips. Besides, the particular quality of a vowel can depend on a lot of other articulatory characteristics, such as the relative stability of the tongue, the position of the lips, physical duration of the segment, the force of articulation, the degree of tenseness of speech organs. So vowel quality could be thought of as a bundle of definite articulatory characteristics which are sometimes intricately interconnected and interdependent. For example, the back position of the tongue causes the lip rounding, the front position of the tongue makes it rise higher in the mouth cavity, the lengthening of a vowel makes the organs of speech tenser at the moment of production and so on. From what we have said it follows that isolation and distinctions of the above-mentioned articulatory features are done only for the sake of analysis with the purpose of describing the vocalic system of the English language.
Traditionally, vowels are divided into long and short. However, the basis for distinguishing vowels is qualitative characteristics, since the actual duration of the sound of historically long vowels can vary. Longitude positional-conditioned vowel variants depend on the type of syllable, the type of syllable-ending consonant, the accent structure of the word, its intonation design.
Vowels of the English language can be classified:
– by the horizontal position of the tongue (row);
– by the vertical position of the tongue (lifting);
- by the position of the lips;
- by the tension of the speech organs;
- by the strength of the articulation at the end of the utterance of the sound;
- by longitude;
- on the stability of articulation.
If we classify vowels, taking into account the horizontal position of the language when pronouncing them, then they can be divided into:
the vowels of the front row (fully front vowels) are [i:], [e], [x] and the kernels of the diphthongs [ei], [Fq];
the vowels of the front - retracted row (front-retracted vowels) are [I] and the kernels of the diphthongs [au], [aI];
mixed vowels – [W], [A], [q];
the vowels of the back advanced vowels are [a:], [u] and the kernels of the diphthongs [qu], [uq];
vowels of the back row (back vowels) – [O], [L], [u:] and the core of the diphthong [OI].
When pronouncing the vowels of the first and second groups, the front part of the tongue is raised towards the alveoli and the hard palate.
Vowels of a mixed series are pronounced with a uniform raising of the back of the tongue. When pronouncing the vowels of the fourth and fifth groups, the back of the tongue is raised to the soft palate.
If we characterize the vowels, taking into account the vertical movement of the language, i.e., make a classification according to the degree of lifting of the language, then it appears in the following form:
high-rise vowels (close) – [i:], [i], [u], [u:];
mid-open vowels – [e], [W], [q], [qu], [Fq];
low-rise vowels (open) – [A], [x], [aI], [ai], [a:], [OI], [R] [O].
In each of these subclasses, narrow and broad variations are distinguished:
high rise-narrow variant [i:], [u:];
wide variant [I], [u]; medium lift-narrow variant [e], [W], [qu];
wide variant [Fq], [L], [q]; low lift-narrow variant [A], [OI];
wide version [a:], [O], [x], [aI], [ai].
According to the position of the lips, all vowels are divided into rounded and uncirculated.
If the classification of English vowels takes into account the duration of their sound and structure, then the vowels can be divided into:
short monophthongs – [i], [e], [x], [O], [u], [A], [q];
long monophthongs – [L], [W], [R];
diphthongoids – [i:], [u:];
diphthongs are [eI], [aI], [OI], [ai], [qu], [Iq], [Fq], [uq].
Diphthongs –There are 20 vowel phonemes in the English language: 10 monophthongs, 2 diphthongs and 8 diphthongs.
The longitude of English vowels is not an absolute constant value. In phonetics, there is a concept of positional length of vowels (positional length of vowels). The same vowel (long or short) can have different sound duration depending on various factors: position in the word, stress, number of syllables, etc.
Long vowels and diphthongs have the longest duration of sounding in the final open stressed syllable.
These vowels have a slightly smaller length in the position before the sonant, an even smaller one before the voiced consonant and the smallest one before the deaf consonant: [lei-lem-leid-leit]. In addition, unstressed vowels are in most cases shorter than stressed ones: [bi'gin — ' limit].
A special place is occupied by the vowel [x]. British phonetists claim that in speech this vowel can have a duration even longer than true long vowels. As a rule, before voiced consonants, the sound [x] has a greater longitude than before deaf consonants.
A slightly different approach seems to have been taken by British phoneticians. They do not single out the classes of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels. So both [i:] and [i] vowels are classed as front, and both [u:] and [u] vowels are classed as back. The latter point of view does not seem to be consistent enough. The point is that the vowels in these two pairs differ in quality which is partially due to the raised part of the tongue. So in this case a more detailed classification seems to be a more precise one since it adequately reflects the articulatory distinction actually present in the language.
The other articulatory characteristic of vowels as to the tongue position is its vertical movement. The way British and Soviet phoneticians approach this aspect is also slightly different. British scholars distinguish three classes of vowels: high (or close), mid (or half-open), and low (or open) vowels.
For English vowels, a phenomenon that is not found in the Russian language is characteristic – truncation (checkness). Truncated (checked) vowels are short vowels that are stressed in a closed syllable ending with a deaf consonant. For example, [bit], [tip]. The essence of the phenomenon boils down to the fact that when pronouncing a vowel in such a position, there is no weakening of articulation.
Another feature of English vowels which is sometimes included into the principles of classification is lip rounding. Traditionally three lip positions are distinguished, that is spread, neutral and rounded. For the purpose of classification it is sufficient to distinguish between two lip positions: rounded and unrounded, or neutral. In English lip rounding is not relevant phonologically since no two words can be differentiated on its basis. Lip rounding takes place rather due to physiological reasons than to any other. The fact is that any back vowel in English is produced with rounded lips, the degree of rounding is different and depends on the height of the raised part of the tongue; the higher it is raised the more rounded the lips are. So lip rounding is a phoneme constitutive indispensable feature, because no back vowel can exist without it.
When approaching the final phase of vowel articulation, the intensity of the vowel sound does not decrease; the vowel is abruptly interrupted by a subsequent deaf consonant. Unchecked vowels in English are diphthongs, long monophthongs and unstressed short vowels. They can stand in an open syllable at the end of words or in a closed syllable before voiced consonants, for example [dL], [ba:d].
Part 2. Articulatory and phonological views on the classification of English vowels
Vowels are speech sounds made with the air stream that meets no obstruction in the mouth, pharyngeal or nasal cavities. There is no noise component characteristic in the production of vowel sounds. A minimum vowel system of any language is likely to take the form of a triangle with the sounds [i, u, a] at the tops. They form boundaries of the vowel system as acoustically stable and articulatory different from each other sounds.

Articulatory classification of English vowels describes distinctive changes in the stability of articulation, the tongue position, the lip position, the vowel length, the vowel tenseness and the character of the vowel end.
According to the stability of articulation English vowels are divided into monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids. Monophthongs are pure vowel sounds with stable unchanging articulation: [ı, e, æ, a:, ɔ, o:, u, ∧,].
A diphthong is a complex vowel sound with unstable articulation in-the inclusion of an articulatory slip from one position to another: [eı, aı, ɔı, au]. They consist of two elements: a core with a strong and distinct articulation that forms the starting point of the vowel and a glide that shows the direction of the sound to change.
Diphthongoids are vowel sounds with a slight change in articulation when the difference between the starting point and the end of the sound is not so clear: [i:, u:].
The variations in the tongue position also have an effect on the quality of vowel sounds. They include horizontal and vertical movements of the tongue. According to the position of the lips, vowels may be rounded or unrounded.
Rounded vowels are produced when the lips are drawn together with a round opening between them: [ɔ, o:, u, u:].
Unrounded vowels are pronounced when the lips are neutral or spread: [i:, ı, e, æ, a:, ∧].
English vowels are also classified according to the character of the end into checked and free (unchecked). This criterion is connected with the quality of vowel sounds under the influence of word stress.
The phonological description of vowels partially follows the articulatory one, yet it has significant distinctions. The same criteria are taken into consideration (the stability of articulation, the tongue position, the lip position, the vowel length, the vowel tenseness, the character of the vowel end), but they are analyzed from the point of view of their functional sufficiency. The criteria of articulatory classification provide the basis for the establishment of distinctive oppositions, but not all of them get the same treatment in home and foreign phonology. Moreover, some criteria are not considered to be phonologically relevant.
The stability of articulation is a disputable criterion. British and American phoneticians suppose that the stability of speech organs in the pronunciation of vowel sounds is quite relative. Therefore in foreign linguistics the subdivision of vowels into monophthongs and diphthongs is based on the number of elements constituting a vowel phoneme. Thus simple vowels are defined as monophthongs whereas complex vowels are defined as diphthongs.
Russian scholars single out the criterion of the stability of articulation, according to which vowels are subdivided into:
monophthongs with stable tongue position;
diphthongs with unstable articulation which implies gradual glide of the tongue from one position to another;
diphthongoids, with relatively unstable articulation which implies a slight glide only.
The position of the tongue in the mouth cavity is the criterion acknowledged as phonologically relevant by all linguists. Still the classifications suggested by Russian and foreign scientists have considerable meaningful differences.
The classification of English vowels according to the vertical movements of the tongue is also variable. British scholars distinguish three classes of vowels: high, mid and low. Russian phoneticians make this classification more detailed and distinguish two subclasses in each class, all in all constituting six classes: broad and narrow variations of close, mid and open vertical positions.
The distribution of vowels according to their length into long and short from the articulatory point of view is stated by all linguists. The antagonism of foreign and home linguists lies in the field of phonology. British and American phoneticians consider vowel length to be an essential phonemic feature whereas Russian scientists don’t treat it as phonologically relevant. They underline that physical duration of a vowel in connected speech depends on many factors and doesn’t always serve as the only distinctive feature.
The explanation of such a considerable difference in the approaches to the second and third criteria is quite simple. In fact, the criteria of tongue position and vowel length are interconnected from the point of view of their functional significance.
Therefore the distinction of minimal pairs like Pete [pi:t] — pit [pıt], pool [pu:l] — pull [pul] is made with the help of functional features based on different positions of the tongue. Thus the length of vowels is not considered to be relevant.
The traditional classification of vowels according to the lip position into spread, neutral and rounded, may be reduced to two positions: rounded and unrounded. Still lip rounding is not phonologically relevant because it takes place only due to physiological reasons. From the phonological point of view lip rounding is caused by different positions of the tongue. Any back vowel is pronounced with lip rounding and the degree of rounding de- pends on the height of the raised part of the tongue.
The degree of vowel checkness or the character of vowel end concerns the quality of vowels in stressed syllables under the influence of the following consonant. According to it all English long vowels are free as their pronunciation doesn’t depend on the next consonant phoneme. The pronunciation of English short vowels is checked when they are stressed. The degree of checkness is terminated by the following consonant: it is greater before a voiceless consonant and smaller before a voiced one or a sonorant.
The degree of tenseness characterizes the state of the organs of speech at the moment of vowel production. Special instrumental analysis shows that long vowels are tense while short ones are lax. This characte- ristic is also non-phonological and it is used only in teaching practice. The criteria of vowel checkness and tenseness are phonologically non-relevant, because they are realized only in connection with other phonetic phenomena, namely the syllabic structure and the word stress. Thus in the word pity ['pıtı] the sounds [ı] in the first and second syllables have different degrees of checkness and tenseness because of the diffe- rences in their placement and accentuation.
Part 3. The main problems in the pronunciation of vowels in English
The classification of English simple and complex vowels gets different interpretation in Russian and foreign linguistics. Monophthongs are singled out by all phoneticians who consider that these are simple vowels with more or less stable position of the articulating speech organs. But the number of monophthongs may differ in some classifications because of various points of view on the phonemic status of complex vowels — diphthongs and diphthongoids.
For example, some foreign linguists liquidate diphthongs as unit phonemes in accordance with the principle of structural simplicity and economy, others single out both monophthongs and diphthongs but reject the existence of diphthongoids. The English diphthongs are the object of sharp phonological debates.
According to the rules of articulatory indivisibility N.S. Trubetskoy states that diphthongs are unisyllabic, because:
— their parts can’t belong to different syllables;
— they present one phoneme with gliding articulation;
— their length doesn’t exceed the length of a single phoneme.
Taking this information into consideration, phoneticians grant mono- phonemic status to the English diphthongs on the basis of articulatory, morphonological and syllabic indivisibility combined with the criterion of duration:
English diphthongs are pronounced within a single articulatory effort;
neither morpheme nor syllable boundary can separate the nucleus and the glide (saying ['seı-ıŋ], crying ['kraı-ıŋ]).
So special attention should be given to pronunciation teaching of English diphthongs, presenting a phonemic entity of two elements, the first of them being a strong and distinct nucleus and the second — a weak and indistinct glide.
The pronunciation of diphthongoids characterized by a certain degree of instability, which is greater in comparison with monophthongs and smaller in comparison with diphthongs, also requires special attention.
Vowel length or vowel quantity has been the point of disagreement among phoneticians for a long time. From practical point of view the quantity of a vowel in connected speech is presupposed by many factors:
its proper length;
the phonetic context;
the word stress;
the number of syllables;
the syllabic structure and so on.
But the problem phonology investigates is whether variations in quantity are meaningful and thus can be treated as a relevant feature when characterizing the system of English vowels.
Foreign scholars usually follow the approach of an outstanding British phonetician D. Jones who underlines the phonological relevance of vo- wel quantity. He states that words may be distinguished from one another with the help of oppositions of different vowel length called chronemes (deed — did, fool — full).
The first law can be proved with the help of distinctive oppositions containing vowels of different length. Most English vowels are characterized by the predominance of other distinctive features besides quantitative correlation:
in [i:, u:] vs. [ı, u] — diphthongoids vs. monophthongs;
in [a:] vs. [∧] — back open vs. central mid characteristics.
The second law shows that besides a great deal of other factors the absolute length of vowels greatly depends on phonetic context.
So vowel length can’t be considered a minimal distinctive feature since it varies under the influence of different phonetic context and serves as an incidental feature characterizing vowel sounds of a certain quality.
The problem of vowel length also concerns the status of phoneme [æ]. It is treated as a historically short vowel that tends to be lengthened before lenis consonants [b, d, g, m, n, z] almost the same as long vowels.
Nowadays the most part of phoneticians considers that [æ] belongs to the subclass of long vowels on the basis of its qualitative — quantitative relations in the opposition [æ] vs. [ə].
Conclusion
There are two main classes of sounds traditionally distinguished in any language — consonants and vowels. The opposition ‘vowels vs. consonants’ is a linguistic universal and it is clearly seen on all levels of sound production. This distinction on the acoustic level is clear due to the effect produced by these sounds: consonants have voice and noise combined, while vowels consist of voice only.
On the articulatory level the difference is exercised through the work of speech organs: vowels are produced without any obstruction, consonants are produced with the help of various obstructions, such as complete, partial or intermittent blockages of the air passage.
Thus, during the study of vowel sounds of the English language, we considered various principles and approaches to the classification of vowels in the English language, identified the patterns and features by which they are classified and compiled an appropriate classification for each of them.
In English long vowels and diphthongs happen to be more peripheral ounds which require more tension and time for their articulation, and they lso have specific vowel quality to identify them.
Vowel quality which depends on the height and the front-back position of the tongue; according to the vertical position of the tongue, vowels can be high (close), low (open) or mid-high (mid-open) and mid-low;' according to the horizontal position of the tongue, they are classified into front, back and central.
Stability of articulation provides for a relatively homogeneous vowel quality throughout its production in case of a monophthong; a change in quality results in a diphthong; however, most of the long vowels are in between, and they are called diphthongoids.
Vowel length gives us two groups of vowel sounds, long and short, which are distinct in a number of features, such as
Tenseness: long vowels, including diphthongs, are tense, short vowels are lax,
Energy discharge: long vowels are unchecked (free), and short vowels are checked, i.e. produced with accompanying glottal activity, involving a rapid energy discharge in a short time interval,
Position of the lips may distinguish rounded and unrounded vowels.
Position of the soft palate: all English vowels are oral; other languages, like French, for example, may have nasal vowels; English vowels may be nasalized before a nasal consonant but the nasal quality change is not phonemic as it is not contrastive, it is allophonic.
So, we can draw the following conclusions and generalizations:
there are 20 vowel sounds in English;
for the first time, the classification of vowels was made by D. Jones;
vowels can be divided according to the horizontal row, according to the vertical rise, according to the longitude, according to the position of the lips, the tension of the speech organs, according to the strength and stability of articulation.
List of literature
Kurashkina, N. A. Fundamentals of phonetics of the English language = The essentials of English phonetics: a textbook / N. A. Kurashkina. - 3rd ed., ster. - Moscow: Flint : Nauka, 2017
Kuryaeva, R. I. English. Lexico-grammatical manual in 2 hours. Part 1 : a textbook for universities / R. I. Kuryaeva. - 8th ed., ispr. and add. - Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House, 2021. - 264 p — - (Higher education). - ISBN 978-5-534-07394-2. - Text: electronic / / EBS Yurayt [website]. - URL: https://urait.ru/bcode/470718 (accessed: 30.06.2021).
Sabirova D. R., Bodnar S. S., Yatsenko G. S. Textbook on theoretical phonetics of English language. Kazan: KFU, 2018-146 p.
Semenova E. V. Theoretical phonetics of the English language: textbook. manual / E. V. Semenova, Ya. N. Kazantseva. - Krasnoyarsk: Siberian Federal University, 2020. - 64 p.
Shevchenko, T. I. Theoretical phonetics of the English language : a textbook for universities / T. I. Shevchenko. - 3rd ed. - Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House, 2020 — - 196 p — - (Higher education). - ISBN 978-5-534-09050-5. - Text: electronic / / EBS Yurayt [website]. - URL: https://urait.ru/bcode/449946 (accessed: 30.06.2021).
Sokolova M. A. Theoretical phonetics of the English language: Textbook for students. higher. studies. institutions / M. A. Sokolova [et al.] – - 3rd ed., stereotype. - M.: Humanitar. ed. center VLADOS, 2004. -286 p.
Theoretical phonetics of the English language. Lectures, seminars, exercises: studies. manual / M. V. Evstifeeva. - M.: FLINT : Science, 2012-168 p.
Tsaturyan, M. M. Theoretical phonetics of the English language: a textbook and a practical course for an academic bachelor's degree / M. M. Tsaturyan. - 2nd ed., ispr. and add. - Moscow: Yurayt Publishing House, 2019. - 180 p — - (Bachelor. Academic course). - ISBN 978-5-534-01000-8. - Text: electronic / / EBS Yurayt [website]. - URL: https://urait.ru/bcode/434644 (accessed: 30.06.2021).
Tymbay A. A. Theoretical phonetics of the English language: A textbook. // Publishing House: Prometheus. - 2020. - 86 p.
Vasiliev V. A., Kaganskaya A. R., etc. Phonetics of the English language. Practical course. - Textbook. - Dubna: Phoenix+, 2017. - 376 p.


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